The birth of the modern world

Renaissance : Dawn of the Modern world

INTRODUCTION

It is difficult to trace precisely the transition of the medieval world to modern period but it is certain that three great movements in Europe namely the Renaissance, the geographical discoveries and reformation are responsible for this massive transformation. The Renaissance movement symbolized the growing spirit of enquiry which permeated the European world at the close of the Middle Ages. It was marked by a renewed  interest  in classical knowledge and brought about a qualitative change in human experience.

The French word 'Renaissance' means rebirth. The movement denotes the rebirth of learning and art as well as the revival of the study of and interest in old classics and in the civilization of Greece and Rome. The renaissance marked the beginning of an era when the thinking, attitudes and outlook of the people underwent a drastic change. It  ushered in a period of all-around awakening and broadened the horizon of knowledge. This awakening roused the spirit of curiosity and inquiry in the people. An intellectual revolt against the rigid rules conventions and mental slavery was initiated. In short, the Renaissance heralded an age of intellectual, commercial, social, geographical and artistic expansion.

The beginning of the Renaissance movement cannot be precisely pinpointed. It could be placed somewhere  between A.D. 1300-A.D. 1600. In ancient times, many spheres of learning had  been completely neglected and around the fourteenth century, there was a revival of  classical knowledge and the works of the ancient writers acquired a new meaning. A new kind of humanism and individualistic realism was found in these classics.

During the Middle Ages, the great thinkers held the belief that man was not important as individual but as a member of the great Christian community. With the gradual loss of faith in the universal church and universal empire, men started perceiving themselves as individuals. They came in contact with the Greek outlook, which concentrated on the wonderful possibilities of man's mind and body and revelled in his achievements.

The scholars, who created interest in Greek and Roman antiquity were known as humanism comes from the Latin word 'Humanitas' meaning culture. This term has come to express concern with human life which was a marked characteristic of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Renaissance contributed to the new passion for art and literature and to the refinement of a free and  cultured human life. Thus, the Renaissance is sometimes also called Humanism. Even Shakespeare wrote : what a piece of work man is, how noble in reason, how infinite in faculties, inform and moving how express and admirable, in action how like an angel, in apprehension how like a god.

Italy was perhaps the first country, where early in the fourteenth century, poets and writers began to emphasize humanism, the most important feature of the Renaissance, in their writings.

In the year 1453, Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks. A  large number of people, carrying with them Greek and Roman manuscripts abandoned   the old city and settled down in Italy and France. The people, who came in contact with these manuscripts, became more and more interested in old classical literature. These classical writings opened up new vistas and coloured the thinking of those who read them. An increasing number turned their attention to these masterpieces. In this way, classical learning gained importance and was respected again.

The Renaissance began in Italy for obvious reasons. The Italian cities of Venice, Florance, Milan, Lombardy and Tuscany had become prosperous and the rulers of these cities were great patrons of art and literature. Scholars were welcome and a large number of them sought refuge here after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The Renaissance began in Italy, says Ben Finger, because Italy had already access to Mohammedan culture through Saracens in Sicily, because Italy was a natural centre for the development of navigation and because the Italian cities had won their independence and had became wealthy.

The Cause of Renaissance

There are several cause which are responsible for the initiation and the resulting success of the Renaissance movement. In the fourteenth century, there was a decline in the influence of the papacy. Pope Boniface VII had suffered  humiliation at the hands of the French king Philip IV in the thirteenth century, Though, the unity of the Church was later re-established yet the pope could never command the same respect again. Ideas having the sanction of religion, but unable stand the test of reason, were abandoned. People were disillusioned with the working of the Church and were dissatisfied with the discrepancy between what the clergy preached and practised. So faith in the universal church and universal empire was undermined.

Scholars and thinkers, like Peter Abelard of France and Roger Bacon of England weakened the hold of the intellectual authority of the church. They severely criticised the malpractices that had crept into the working of the Church. Abelard declared that the principles of Christianity as laid down in the scripture were not to be taken for granted but were to be tested with reason. Roger Bacon also found fault with the Church. Both these revolutionary thinkers were punished for their heretical pronouncements by the Church but their indomitable quest for truth led to the success of the Renaissance.

  The fall of Constantinople in 1453 led to a widespread and systematic study of Greek, Greek scholars fled to Europe and propagated the ideas of the ancient Greek philosophers and thinkers.

The intellectual revival of Europe was made possible by the introduction of paper in the European world by the Arabs. With the introduction of the printing press, ideas spread quickly and widely. The invention of printing with movable type made it possible to produce many copies of a book at the same time and this revived interest in learning. Gutenberg of Mains was the first European printer who started printing in 1453. In Hungary, the first book was printed in 1473, and Caxton started his printing press in England in 1477.

several universities were established throughout Europe. These universities were primarily intended to cater to the needs of the clergy, but they soon became centres of new learning, which further heightened the spirit of curiosity scepticism.

During this period, numerous voyages were undertaken to discover new lands. These geographical explorations offered such a wide range of experience to the people that they began to doubt whether learning was the monopoly of the Church alone. They were inclined to believe that it was necessary to absorb some of the ideas of the East and also to renew many issues.

The Effects of the Renaissance

The effects of the Renaissance were felt in several fields :

political : The spirit of the Renaissance did not immediately bring about democracy in the political field. The Greek spirit of about the downfall of feudalism. The feudal orders with its serfs and lords began to disappear. The unsettled condition produced by the transitional phase where the existing political system had weakened often led to conditions of anarchy and led to conditions of anarchy and led people to place their trust in strong monarchies.

The Awakening in Italy : The spirit of curiosity and inquiry created a new outlook on literature and learning. Writers focused their attention on the sympathetic study of man rather than on theology. The Bible was also re-examined in a spirit of scientific inquiry. Scholars started appreciating the Greek and Roman classics  for their humanistic approach and for their beauty and style.

During the medieval period, Latin was considered to be the language of the elite and the vernaculars were looked down upon but during the same period great pieces of literature were produced in the language of the common people. In the thirteenth century, Dante wrote Divine comedy in Italian ;this book dealt with the themes of human love, love of nature,  patriotism and religion Petrarch (1304-1374) wrote sonnets in Italian to Lady Laura. Boccaccio (1313-1375) also wrote in Italian, the well-known stories The Decameron.  Erasmus (1466-1536) made found of the Church in his famous book ''In praise of folly '' Since the Roman owed a lot to Greeks, a study of the Roman classics aroused interest in Greek works. Even the original Greek texts of the New Testament were studied. Italy became an important centre of learning and was known as the school of Europe.

 The Renaissance in England

Germany followed the lead given by Italy in the Renaissance movement. In England too,  new school were opened and emphasis was placed on national literature. Utopia written in Latin in the Middle Ages by sir Thomas more appeared in English in 1551. English literature flowered in the writings of Chaucer (CANTERBURY TALES), Mallory, Edmund Spenser (Faerie Queen); Shakespeare, Marlowe and Francis 'Bacon. In France and Spain, Montaigne, Rabelais (The inestimable life); and Cervantes ( Don Quixote); wrote in their native language.

Painting: The Spirit of revival left its indelible mark on art  too. In the Middle Ages, art was subjugated to religion and the artist had no freedom of expression. The artists were only supposed to embellish Cathedrals and chapels with their paintings and sculptures. With the advent of Renaissance movement artists were influenced by the ancient Greek and Roman artists, their subjects were no longer confined to religious themes. Along with the representations of the Madonna and the Child, several figures of Greek and Roman gods and goddesses were also painted and carved . The most celebrated Renaissance painters of the sixteenth century were Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael and Titian.

Leonardo da Vinci, a versatile genius was a great painter and sculptor. His Last Supper and his masterpiece, Mona Lisa have immortalised him for all time to come. Leonardo da Vinci was deeply interested in music and anatomy. He evinced interest in scientific research as well. He designed waterworks, drains and fortification for the city of Milan.

Michelangelo was primarily concerned with portraying of the human body as the revelation of the divinity of God. His painting The Last Judgement done in the Sistine Chapel is an awe-inspiring work of art.

Raphael tried to imitate the style of Michelangelo, especially when he worked with him at the Sistine Chapel but his smaller paintings especially the Sistine Madonna deserve mention in the Renaissance art.

Sculpture and Architecture : The Renaissance sculpture of Europe followed the model of the lifelike statues of the Greeks. Gellino's Perseus and Slain Medusa, the statues of David and Moses and the figures of Day, Night, Twilight, and Dawn carved  for the Medici tombs in Florence by Michelangelo and the carved gates of Florence by Ghiberti are unparalleled in beauty. Leonardo da Vinci's status were as fine as his unrivalled work of art.

The Roman style in architecture had been faithfully followed in the Middle Ages but slowly and gradually the Gothic style came into vogue. The Basilica of St Peter's Cathedral of the interest in the ancient Roman buildings. St Peter's Basilica is the most famous building of the Renaissance. Donato Bramante and a number of other architects contributed to the design of this great church which took 120 years to complete. Filippo Brunelleschi was a great architect of Florence. Using the domes, round arches and columns of classical architecture he developed a new style.

Science : The spirit of inquiry and curiosity led to a new scientific approach which resulted in discoveries and inventions. Though Roger Bacon had discovered how to make gunpowder in the Middle Ages, it was quite sometimes later that men learnt how to use it effectively. Chemistry acquired the status of one of the science and Andreas Vesalius wrote the first book on anatomy On the Structure of the Human Body. Vesalius also insisted that surgery should be performed by skilled men proficient in anatomy rather than by ordinary barbers, as was commonly done at that.

In Poland, Copernicus published a book Concerning the Revolution of Celestial Bodies which shook the very foundation of the medieval, Ptolemy that the Earth was the centre of the universe and the sun and the planets revolved around it was believed unquestionably by all the thinkers of Meddle Ages but Copernicus was able to establish the fact that Earth is one of the many planets revolving round the sun, and the day and night are caused by its rotation on it axis and not by the revolution of the sun. In the seventeenth century the Italian astronomer Galileo and the German astronomer John Kepler upheld the theory of Copernicus. Galileo made a telescope in 1609 and after careful and painstaking observation of the swinging lamps at Pisa, he discovered the laws of the pendulum. He was the first to propound the theory that the speed of falling bodies depends. not on their weight, but on the distance to the ground.

William Harvey concentrated on the science of medicine and discovered the circulation of blood, which he actually demonstrated.

Printing : Printing developed as a result of the efforts of John Gutenberg of MAINA and about 1455 the famous Gutenberg Bible was printed. This invention was of immense value to the propagation and spread of knowledge.

Geographical Discoveries : Men discovered new lands during the Renaissance. The desire to explore the unknown prompted many European explorers to discover sea routes to Asia and to the unknown region of the west. Christopher Columbus made a voyage to the New World which completely upset popular ideas about geography. Ferdinand Magellan sailed round the Cape of Good Hope.

Religion : The greatest gift of the Renaissance - the spirit of inquiry did not spare the field of religion. There was an awakening in the minds of the people beliefs were questioned. In spite of the best efforts of the Pope and the clergy, the hold of the Church was weakened this paved the way for another great movement called the Reformation which shook the very foundation of the church.

It may be said that the Renaissance is one of the great movement which helped in the emancipation of the people from the tyranny of Church and ageold customs and which was responsible for the transition from the Middle Ages to modern times.